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CONTENTS OF | e

PART Il.

The Brick-maker Be ee Pama” t i The Rope-maker 5 Ne emerel (en The Weaver Cpe ale Gn he ata Olah eae The Stocking Weaver . A ra heart 18 Mie Carpet: Weaver «. °°. (+ 4 8a a8 Ladies’ Dress-maker . Re ee: ‘The Pin-maker . i HA <a ee The Needle-maker sues : a 42 The Wire-drawer eres ati The Paper-maker ee | The Printer Pe i iy 8. Mie Bookbinder). 0.7 6. 0s oe The Callico-Printer -. : 4) ye Ua : 82 i The Tin-plate Worker Rr ee ie Pe Brazier: 80. 0). GE Re is The Button-maker _ oe The Cabinet-maker The Saddler . i The Glass-blower . The Cork-cutter’ . The Watch-maker ¢

THE :

*

BOOK OF TRADES.

THE BRICK-MAKER.

Tue business of a brickmaker is carried on in the open fields, and its mode of operation may be seen in the

neighbourhood of most large towns. —

The art in almost all its branches is ree _gulated by different acts of parliament ; and bricks may be made of pure clay, or of clay mixed in certain proportions with sand or ashes. ;

The clay is first moistened and tem-

pered with water, either by the hand, | 4 or by means of a machine or mill work. _ ed swith one or more horse Ne When i it sd

“VOL. Ill. . iB :

‘ a oe 4 { a L i te } 5

SS REPO oy we

2 Lhe Brick-maker.

persons are usually, in the neighbour- hood of London, employed upon the business of making a single brick ; these are called a gang: they consist a one or two men, a woman, and two chil- dren, to each of which is assigned a different department in the cccupation. A gang.in full work will make many thousand bricks in the course of a sin- gle week. : In the plate the man only is repre-

_ sented in the act of moulding the clay

into the shape of a brick: he stands under a sort of thatched cover to keep

off the sun and the rain; on the board - before him are all his implements; the

mould into which the clay is put, the clay itself, which is brought to him by —

another person, a vessel with some wa-

ter, and a little heap of sand; and on

"his left hand lies the ruler with which

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The Bieondker. , 8

he takes off the superfluous clay from

the mould.

The inside of the box or mould is exactly the shape and size of a brick: the workman throws the clay into this with some violence, having first scat- tered a little sand about the sides of i it and then scraping off the sip cals clay, he lifts up the mould, and be- tween two small boards conveys it to the barrow which stands near him on the ground. When the barrow is loaded another person comes’and wheels away 2 the bricks, and piles them up in an open place to dry. When the pile is — made of the proper height he covers — them with long straw, so that they | may dry gradually without being Xs ae to the direct ra - the: sun,

me | . The Brick-maker.

soon as they are sufficiently dry for the purpose they are to be burnt in a kiln. Here great art is required in piling the bricks, so that the fire may circulate through every course and in all direc- tions. Breeze, that is, small cinders from sea-coal, is the fuel used in burning bricks, and when once well lighted it will keep burning several days till the bricks are completely finished.

Bricks when finished are of different colours, according to the clay of which they are made, but they must be all of one size; namely, nineinches long, four inches broad, and two inches andahalf _ thick. A heavy duty is charged upon - every thousand bricks; of course this _ business affords a large revenue to go- vernment.

The most beautiful white bricks made in this country are manufactured at Woolpit in Suffolk; these are brought ©

ap each le ia

The Brick-maker. g

_ by means of water carriage to all parts of England where great neatness in _ brickwork is an object. me :

A. gang of brick-makers will earn a handsome living: sometimes it hap- — pens that the whole gang consists of branches of the same“family, as the fa- ther and mother, and four or five’chil- dren of different*ages; these will earn from two to three guineas a week; but they work many hours, and their labour is very hard. See.

In connection with the trade of brick- : making we must notice the manufacture _ of tiles, which is a sort of thin brick, made use of in the roofs of houses, and also, when something thicker, for. aye purposes of paving. Those for cover- — ing the roofs of houses are of different | _ shapes, according to the uses. for which 4 they are intended ; these are pein files, pige tiles, guttersiles, 5 pee aa &c. q

an : . The Brick-maker.

They are all made according to certain gauges, and the makers are subject to. heavy penalties if their tiles exceed the dimensions fixed on by the several acts of parliament. The kilns in which tiles are burnt are large conical buildings ; in _ these the tiles are piled from the bottom to the top before the fire is lighted. A very large manufactory of this sort is situated near Bagnigge Wells.

Flemish or Dutch tiles, which are. glazed and painted, were formerly much

| used in chimneéy-jaumbs. Some thirty

or forty years ago it was not uncommon to see a complete scripture history, and other curious devices, in a parlour fire- :

place. .

importance; for without the assistance

of strings, cords, ropes, cables, &c. a very small part of the business of life

could be carried on that is now trans- acted. Ropes of all kinds are made of hemp, twisted or spun something after thesame manner of spinning wool; and the places in which ropes are manufactured are called rope-walks. These are a quarter of:a mile or more in length, i in the open air, but usually covered over

with a slight shed to keep the workmen from the inclemencies and Regt of

the weather. - Me

At the upper end of ee ropesw alk

: isa spinning-wheel, which. is jturned round by a person who sits on a stool

RopE-MAKING is an art of very great

8 The i eaade

or bench for the purpose : the ‘man who :

forms the rope or string has a bundle of —

dressed hemp, such as that which lies

on the truck in the plate, round his ~ : “waist. From this he draws out two or _ i ‘more ends and fixes them to a hook:

the wheel is now turned by which the

threads are twisted, and as the spinner

walks backward, the rope, or more pro- _perly the rope-yarn, is lengthened. The part already twisted.draws along with it

more fibres out of the bundle, and the

- spinner gives assistance to it with his >

fingers, supplying hemp in due propor- tion as he walks away from the wheel,

and taking care that the fibres come in

equally from both sides of his bundle,

-and that they enter always with their _ ends, and not by the middle, which oF would double them. The arrangement of the fibres and tie degree of twisting. _ depend on the skilliand dexterity of the _

{ }

The Rope-maker. na 9 a

spinner. The degree of twist depends on the rate of the wheel’s motion, com- bined with the retrograde motion of the spinner.

As soon as he is arrived at the lower

end of the walk he calls out, and an-

other spinner immediately detaches the

yarn from the hook of the wheel, gives _ it to a third person, who takes it to the —

reel, and the second spinner attaches his own hemp to the whirl-hook. In the mean time the first spinner keeps fast hold of the end of his yarn, to prevent its untwisting, and'as soon as the reeler begins to turn his reel, he goes slowly up the walk, keeping the yarn of an equal tightness all the way

till he arrives at the wheel, where ne :

waits with his yarn in hand till another has finished his yarn. The first ‘spin- -ner takes it off the whirl-hook o his own, that it may follow it on the ‘reel, and begins a new yarn himself, — He

joins i.

SES SO Cer aS ANE

MO The Rope tine *

The fibres of hemp are thus twisted. into yarns, and make a line of any

length: down the rope-walk are. a

number of upright posts with long pegs fixed in them at right angles; on these pegs the spinner throws the rope-yarn as

: ete proceeds, to prevent its swagging. » As many fibres are made into one ae so many yarns are afterward made

into one rope, according to the size and . strength required. By this process,

which is called laying, it acquires a so-

lidity and hardness which render it less penetrable by water, that would rot it in”

-a short time.

Sometimes the union of several yarns —

as called a strand, and a larger rope may

be formed of two or more of these strands ; and in this manner cables and

_ other ground tackle are commonly made.

Cables and cords are frequently tar-

pred: which is usually done in the state of

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The Rope-maker. bl.

yarn, this being the only method "hat the hemp can be uniformly penetrated. rThe yarn is made to wind off from one reel, and having passed through a vessel containing hot tar, it is wound up on another, and the superfluous tar is taken off by passing through a hole surround-

ed with spungy oakum; or it is some-

times tarred in skains or hauls, which

are drawn by a capstan through the tar- kettle, and through a hole formed of

two plates of metal.

_ It is a fact, however, that ie : cordage is very much weaker than ~

white; it is also less pliable and less durable; but the use of tar is never- theless necessary to defend the cordage from the action of the water. Nets are made with small cords ; lar.

ger ones are used for tying up bes ss _and ropes of all sizes and dimensions are used for shipping. A ship’s ‘cable

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12 The Rope-maker. is sometimes several hundred yards in length, and is worth a large sum of money.

The master rope-maker requires a _ considerable capital if his business is’ _ carried on upon a large scale, and a _ journeyman will earn with ease from a. ! guinea to a guinea and a half a week, or even more if he is sober and in trious.

Yarn for sail-cloth is made of dress-. ed hemp, and spun in the same man- ner that rope-yarn is spun. ‘The spin- ners of this may make a good living ; women are chiefly employed in it. The person who shapes and sews together the cloth into sails is called a sail-maker, and is sometimes denominated a ship’ S

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13 THE WEAVER.

In the plate we have a good repre- sentation of a weaver engaged in his business. He sits at his work, and makes use of his feet as well as his hands, Weaving is a very extensive trade, and is divided into a multitude of different branches, such as the broad and narrow weavers. The broad wea- ver is employed in stuffs, broad-cloths, woollen goods, &c. the narrow wea- ver, in ribbons, tapes, and such other things; and there are engine loomsfor taaking some of these narrow goods, by which ten or twelve pieces can be ‘made at once: but goods made in this. way are generally not so good as those made by hand, because it is not possible — to find thread in every part equal: but the engines give an equal pressure upon

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14 The Weaver.

ing by hand, increases or diminishes the . strength of his pull according to the quality of the thread, and by that me- thod conceals all difference in the warp.

Linen and woollen cloth are both

woven the same way; the one from

thread, the other from worsted. So also is silk, which, when taken from the silk-worm, and wound, ‘is called floss silk, and afterwards spun into sewing- silk.

‘The weaver sits at his /gom: this is a machine by which. several distinct threads of any kind are woven into one piece. ‘They are of various structures, according to the several kinds of mates

rials to be woven and to the methods of weaving them. ‘The other principal

things to be noticed are the warp, the woof, and the shuttle. : The warp is the threads, whether of | silk, wool, linen, or cotton, that are extended lengthwise on the loom.

The Weaver. 15

.. The woof is the thread which the weaver shoots across the warp, by means of a little instrument called a shuttle. ~

The shuttle serves to form the woot by being thrown alternately from right to left, and from left to right, across and between the threads of the warp.

In the middle of the shuttle is a cavity ©

called the eye or chamber, and‘in. this

is enclosed the spole or bobbin, on

which the thread or part of it is wound. The ribbon-weaver’s ‘shuttle is dif- ferent from that of most other weavers,

though it serves for the same purpose.

It is made of box, and is six or seven

inches long, shod. with iron at 1 oth

ends, which terminate in pointsthat are crooked, one towards the right, ~ a

_ other towards the left. :

In the front of the plate Stahe| ‘the reel, by means of which the thread i is ‘wound on the bobbins that lie. in the

16 The Weaver. —

wooden bowl, ready for the weaver as he wants them. The thread for the warp is wound on a kind of large © wooden bobbins to dispose it for warp- ing.

When the warp is mounted, the weaver treads alternately on the treddle, first on the right step, and then on the left, which raises and lowers the threads of the warp equally: between these he throws transversely the shuttle from the _ one to the other ; and every time that

the shuttle is thus thrown a thread of _ the woof is inserted in the warp. In this manner the work is continued till the piece is finished, that is till the whole warp is filled with the woof ; it is then taken off the loom by unrolling it from — the beam on which it had been rolled, in proportion as it was wove. To give woollen stuff the beri qualities, it is required that the thread

The Weaver. By

of the warp be of the same kind of wool, and of the same fineness throughout. ‘The woof is of different matter, ac- cording to the piece to be made. In taffety, both woof and warp are of silk. ‘In mohairs, the woof is usually flax, and the warp silk. In satins the warp is frequently wool, and the woof silk. “The common weaver requires but little ingenuity in carrying on his bu- siness, but weavers of flowered silks, ‘damasks, velvets, &c. ought to be peo- ple possessed of a congilevaine capaci-

ty: itis an advantage to them if they are able to draw and design their own »

patterns. Journeymen weavers can, while in

constant employ make a good living ; they will earn a guinea and a halk or two guineas a week, according. to! he substance on which they are employed. .

It is a business that ear eae

18 The Stocking-weaver.

degree of strength, and a lad may be bound apprentice to it at twelve or thirteen years of age. Among wea- vers are frequently found men of a thoughtful and literary turn. One of — the first mathematicians of this coun- © try was Mr. Thomas Simpson, an in- dustrious weaver in Spitalfields, Thesilk-throwster prepares by means of a mill the raw silk for the use of the | ‘weaver, he employs women chiefly. Spin- ning the hard silk and winding itemploy a great number of hands of almost all ages.

- THE STOCKING-WEAVER.

_ForRMERLY stockings were made of cloths, or of milled stuffs sewed to- _ gether; but since the invention of knit- ting and weaving stockings of silk, wool, cotton, thread, &c. the use of cloth |

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The Stocking-weaver. 19

stockings has been entirely discontinu- ed. In the year 1561, queen Elizabeth

was presented with a pair of black knit.

silk stockings, with which she was so much pleased as to discontinue the use of those made with cloth, It is said also by Dr. Howel, in his History of the

World, that Henry VII. commonly © wore cloth hose, except by accident he.

obtained a pair of silk stockings. His son Edward the Sixth was presented

with a pair of long Spanish silk stock--

ings by Sir Thomas Gresham, and the donation was highly esteemed. From these accounts it should seem that the

invention of knit silk stockings origin- j

ally came from Spain.

William Rider was the first person who made them in'England ; and he, it is said, learnt the art at the house of an Italian merchant,and knit a pair of worst- ed stockings which he presented to Wil- liam ear] of Pembroke in the year 1564,

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20 The Stocking-weaver.

Modern stockings, whether woven or knit, are formed of an indefinite num- ber of little knots, called stitches, loops, or meshes, intermingled in one another.

Woven stockings are manufactured

‘on a machine made of finely polished

iron or steel, such as that represented in the plate. It is of a structure too

_ complex to admit of a description in

this little work.

The invention of this. machine is ascribed to William Lee, M. A. of St. John’s College, Cambridge, in the year

1589. But by other persons the credit.

of itis given to a student of Oxford,

who was driven to pursuits of industry _

through mere necessity. This young | man, falling in love with an inn-keeper’s daughter, married her, though she had not a penny, and he, by his marriage, _

; lost his fellowship. They soon became i miserably poor; and the only means. by |

which age could support: ‘themselves _

The Stocking-weaver. = 21

were the knitting of stockings, at which the woman was very expert. « Sitting constantly together from morning till night, the young man observed with great attention the motion of his wife’s fingers in the dexterous management of her needles, and conceived that it was posssible to contrive a little loom which might perform the work with more ex- pedition. They soon began to make the experiment, which completely succeed- ed, Thus the stocking-loom was first invented; by which the inventor not only placed himself above want, but has rendered to his country great and im- portant benefits, stockings being a con- siderable article for exportation from this to foreign countries. sae The loom has of course received se- veral improvements, so that: at length stockings of all sorts can be:made on it with great art and. expedition. By means of some additional machinery to

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29 The Stocking-weaver.

the stocking-frame, the turned nbbed stockings are made as well asthose done. with knitting-needles., These, together with the manner of making the open- work mills, a curious sort) of lace, aprons, and handkerchiefs, as well as a great variety of figured goods for waist- coats, &c., have sprung from the same machine, ‘and form now a considerable additional branch of the stocking-trade; Knit stockings are made with needles of polished iron, which interweave the. threads and form the meshes of which the stockings consist. ‘This part of the invention, as it is now practised, is given by some to Scotland, by others, to France, though it probably originated in Spain. In Paris there is no great house without its porter, and these porters em- ploy all their leisure moments 1n the knitting: of stockings. | In England knitting i is not much*carriedon as a.

frade; butin country places most female

The Stocking-weaver. 23

servants are expected to be able to fill up their time in this way.

_ Knit stockings are much more dura- ble than those made in the loom; but

the time required for this work, espe-

clally if the materials ar every. fine, raises the price too high for common wearers. ‘The Scotch are said to make the best

,

knit stockings of any people in Europe, ©

and they:sell at enormously high prices, ‘from thirty age to four or five ‘pounds a pair.

The stocking-weaver requires more

igenius than strength. Itis a profitable

business to the master, but journeymen ‘must have considerable application to earn more than a auined and ‘av halica week. It is, however, clean, neat work, and unexposed to the inclemencies of the weather. They are paid so much

for each pair of stockings, and this va.

ties according to the fineness of the

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24 — The Stocking-weaver.

thread, cotton, silk, or worsted that is made use of: if however they do not possess a loom of their own, they allow the master two shillings a week for the use of his. Looms will cost from fifty to a hundred and fifty guineas each. |

The hoster. purchases stockings, night-caps, socks, gloves, &c. from

_ the manufacturer, and sells them again. Some of them employ looms, and are in that respect stocking-weavers. ‘The business of the hosier consists in being able properly to appreciate the value: of the goods in which he deals, an art ‘which is easily acquired.

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Tue carpet loom:is very well repre- sented in the plate: it is placed perpen- dicularly, and consists principally of four pieces, two long planks or cheeks of wood, and two thick rollers or beams. The planks are set upright, and the rollers across, the one at top and the

other at bottom, about a foot or more distant from the ground. They aresus- pended on the planks, and — may be ¢ turned with bars.. In each roller is a

groove from one end to the other, in which the ends of the warp are so fas- tened that all the threads of it are see perpendicular. Bp

The warp is divided both. bei and 4

behind into parcels of ten threads ‘through the whole width of the piece. The weaver works on the foreside,

The design or pattern is need in its “VOL, IL, D

26 | The Carpet-weaver.

proper. colours on. cartons, tied about the workman, who looks at it every moment, because every stitch is mark- - ed upon it, as it is to be in his work. By this means he always knows what co- ‘lours amd shades he is to use, and how many stitches of the same colour. In this he is assisted by squares, into which the whole design is divided; each square is subdivided into ten vertical lines, corresponding with the parcels of ten. threads of the warp; and besides, each square is ruled with ten horizontal lines, crossing the vertical linesat right angles. - The workman, having placed his spin- - dles of thread near him, begins to work. - on the first horizontal line of one of the squares.

_. The lines marked on the carton are not traced/on the warp, because an iron ° wire, which is longer than the width of | a parcel of ten threads, supplies the

The Carpet-weaver. (27

place of a cross line. This wire is

managed by a crook at one end, at the —

workman’s right hand; towards the other end itis flatted into a sort of knife,

with a back and edge, and grows wider _ to the point. The weaver fixes his iron _ wire horizontally on the warp, by twist- “ing some turns of a suitable thread of the woof round it, which he passes for-

ward and backward, behind a forethread of the warp, and then behind the op-

posite thread, drawing them intheir turn | by their leishes. Afterwards he brings

the woof-thread round the wire, in order to begin again to thrust it into the warp.

He continues in this mariner to cover the iron rod or wire, and to fill up a

line to the tenth thread of the warp. He is at liberty either to stop here or to go on with the same cross line in| he: next division, according as he- “passes” ‘the thread of the woof round the iron wire,

28 The Carpet-weaver.

and into the warp, the threads of which he causes to cross one another at every instant: when he comes to the end of ‘the line, he takes care to strike in, or. close again all the stitches with an iron _ reed, the teeth of which freely enter _ between the empty threads of the warp, “and which is heavy enough to strike in the woof he has used. This row of © stitches is again closed and levelled, and in the same manner the weaver pro- _ ceeds; then with his left hand he lays a strong pair of shears along the finished line, cuts off the loose hairs, and thus forms a row of tufts perfectly even, which, together with those before and after it, form the shag. Thus the work- man follows stitch for stitch, and colour for colour, the plan of his pattern, which he is attempting to imitate; he paints magnificently, without having the least notion of painting or drawing.

The Carpet-weaver. 29

The manufacture of carpets, after the manner of Chaillot, was introduced into London in the year 1750, by two workmen who left the manufactory in disgust, and came here to procure em- ployment. ‘They were first encouraged by Mr. Moore, who succeeded in esta- blishing this important and useful ma-

facture, and who, in the year 1757, ob-

tained a premium from the Society ‘of

Arts for the best carpet in imitation of the Turkey carpets. We have carpet manufactories at Axminster, Wilton, Kidderminster, Leeds, and many other places. It is a good business for the masters and journeymen, and now car- pets are become of such general use, a great number of people are employed in the manufacture. \

- Another sort of carpet in use, is made of narrow slips of list sewed together ;

these of course are very inferior to those ©

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30 The Carpet-weaver.

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' just described, but they employ many women. and children. A considerable trade in the list carpets is carried on at the Orphan Working School in the City- road, an institution that does honour to Po the liberality and public spirit of the dis- senters in and near the metropolis.

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31: LADIES’ DRESS-MAKER. %

' Tue business of a mantua-maker, which now includes almost every ar- ticle of dress made use of by ladies, except, perhaps, those which belong to the head and the feet, is too well known to stand in need of description. : The plate is a representation of a

mantua-maker taking the pattern off from a lady by means of a piece of pa- per, or of cloth. The pattern, if taken in cloth, becomes afterwards the lining of the dress. This business requires, in those who would excel in it, a con- siderable share of taste, but no great capital to set up in it, unless to the act _ of making is united the business me fur- Te the materials.

The mantua-maker’s customer : | not always easily pleased; they fire- - ntly.expect more from their dress,

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39 Ladies’ Dress-maker.

fhan it is capable of giving. “ Dress,” says Mr. Addison, “is grown of univer- sal use in the conduct of life. Civili- ties and respect are only paid to appear- | ance. It is a varnish that gives a lustre — to every action, that introduces us into

all polite assemblies, and the only cer- tain method of making most of the youth of our nation conspicuous : hence Milton asserts of the fair sex,

—————-————of outward form ee Elaborate, of inward less exact,

“ A lady of genius will give a gen- : teel air to her whole dress by a well fancied suit of knots, as a judicious writer gives a spirit to a whole sentence by a single expression. As words grow old, and new ones enrich the language, : sothere is aconstant succession of dress: \ the fringe succeeds the lace; the stays 4 shorten or extend the waist; the ribb

Ladies’ Dress-maker. 33

undergoes divers variations; the head-

dress receives frequent rises and falls every year; and, in short, the whole woman throughout, as curious observers of dress have remarked, is changed from top to toe in the period of five years. <¢ ‘The mantua-maker must be an ex- pert anatomist ; and must, if judiciously chosen, have a name of French termi-

nation: she must know how to hide all ©

defects in the proportions of the body, and must be able to mould the shape by

the stays, that while she corrects the.

body she may not interfere with the pleasures of the palate.”

It will therefore be readily admitted, :

that the perfection of dress, and the art of pleasing the fair sex in this particu- Jar cannot be attained without a genius ; the indignation expressed against those who fail in their pr etensions is referred, to by Pope:

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34 Ladies’ Dress-maker.

se ’

Not Cynthia, when her mantua’s pinn’d awry, Ever felt such rage, resentment, and despair, As. thou, sad virgin! for thy ravish’d hair.

The business of a mantua-maker, when conducted upon a large scale and ina fashionable situation, is very pro-_ fitable ; but the mere work-women do

. not make gains adequate to their labour:

they are frequently obliged to set upto _ _ very late hours, and the recompense for _ extra-work is not adequate to the time spent. Young women ought, perhaps,

rarely to be apprenticed to this trade

unless their friends can, at the end of — the term, place them in a reputable way _ of business, and can command such connections as shall, with industry,.se- cure their success. The price charged

for making dresses cannot be estimated : it varies with the article to be made; with the reputation of the maker ; with

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Ladies’ Dress-make : 35

her situation in life; and even with the _ season of the year.

Mantua-makers work in silks, mus- lins, cambrics, cottons, and a great va riety of articles, adapted as well to please the fancy, as for purposes of real. utility. They require but few imple- ‘ments : these are chiefly thread, scissars, pins, and needles. Of the manufac- ture of pins and needles we shall give an account in the next article.

36

THE PIN-MAKER.

THERE Is scarcely any noommodicn : cheaper than pins, and but few that pass. __ through more hands before they come to be'sold. It is reckoned that twenty- five workmen are successively employ-. ed in each pin, between the drawing of the brass wire and the sticking os the | pin in the paper. _ It is not easy to trace the invention of this very useful little implement ; it is first noticed in the English statute’ _ book in the year 1483, prohibiung- foreign manufactures: and it appears _ from the manner in which pins are de- : scribed 1 in the reign of Henry the VIII, and the labour and time which the ma- nufacture of them would require, that. they were a new invention in this coun try, and probably brought from France. q At this period pins were considered |

st ag ie aR Sie ar Sa a gS

A

iif ii

\

CASE TAA TUA STANTS HN QSTTTU ISLE:

HAL

The Pin-maker. 37

in Paris as articles of luxury; and no

master pin-maker was allowed to open more than one shop for the sale of his wares, except on New-year’s day, and the day before that ; it should seem, there- fore, that pins were given awayas New-

year’s gifts ; hence arose the phrase pin-

‘money, the name of an allowance fre« quently made, by the husband to his wife for her own spending.

Pins are now made wholly of brass

Hh dh Reine erate

wire ; formerly iron wire was made use _

of, but the ill effects of iron have nears

ly discarded that substance from the

pin-manufactory. The excellence and

perfection of pins consist in the stiffness of the wire, and its blanching; in the

heads being well turned, and the points

accurately filed. ‘The following are some of the principal operations. _ When the brass wire, of which the

pins are formed, is. first received, it is VOL, Ul, E

38 The Pin-maker.

generally tco thick for the purpose of being cut inte pins. It is therefore wound off from one wheel to another, with great velocity, and made to pass between ihe two, through a circle in a piece of iron of smaller diameter. The wire is then straightened, and afterwards cut into lengths of three or four yards, _and then into smaller ones, every length being sufficient to make six pins ; each end of these is ground to a point, which ee performed by a boy, who sets with two smail grinding-stones before him, turned by a wheel. Taking up a hand- ful, the applies the ends to the coarsest of the two stones, being careful at the same time to keep each piece moving round between his fingers, so that the points may not become flat: he then gives them to the other stone; and by thiat means a lad of twelve or fourteen years of age is enabled to point about

FTO ANGL LYS Bs,

Mabie Ceti tis ier ei Tas a Ss oR itt aero CRT ’

The Pin-maker. 39

16,000 pins in an hour. When the wire is thus pointed, a pin is taken off — from each end, and this is repeated till it is cut into six pieces. The next ope- "ration is that of forming the heads, or, — as they term it, bead spinning; which — is done by means of a spinning-wheel, 4 ‘one piece of wire being thus, with as-_ tonishing rapidity, wound round an- other, and the interior one being dra v1 out, leaves a hollow tube; it is then» cu with shears, every two turns of. the wire forming one head; these are sgf ened by throwing ean into iron pans, and placing them in a furnace till a they are red-hot. As soonas theyre cool, they are distributed: to. children, who sit with their anvils and hammers before af them, which they work with their feet, ' by means of a lathe; and taking up one of the lengths, shew thrust the blunt end into a quanta of the heads that hi =

40 The Pin-maker.

before them, and catching one at the extremity, they apply them immediately to the anvil and hammer, and by amo- tion or two of the foot, the point and _ the head are fixed together in much less time than it can be described in, and- with a dexterity only to be acquired i practice, the spectator being in continua apprehension for the safety of their fin- gers’ ends. The woman in the pletéis eens this part of the operation: _ The pin is now finished as to its form, but still it is merely brass ; for which purpose it is thrown into a copper con- : taining a solution of tin and the leys of wine. Here it remains for some time; and when taken out it assumes a white though dull appearance. To give ita polish, it is put into a tub containing a i “quantity of bran, which is set’i motion _ by turning a shaft that runs through i its centre, and thus by means of friction it

Ree RAT hoe AVN aR eS SUE SC ety RTE IID Vig PIO MORRO kU Se VE Ay BORD Wank hon”

The Pimiaber. 41

; becomes perfectly bright. The pin be-

ing-complete, nothing remains but. to _ separate it from the bran, which is per- formed by a mode exactly similar to the

_ Winnowing of corn, the bran flying off,

jand leaving the pin behind fit for 1 imme-

A diate sale.

_ The pins most aay, in commerce — Ee those of England ;: ‘those of Bour- deaux are next; then those made in

somie of the mite departments. of

France. The London pointing and |

blanching are most in repute, because

our pin-makers, in pointing, use two _,steel-mills, the first of which forms the

|

i h

:

point, and the latter takes off all irre. :

gularities, and renders it smooth, and,

as it were, polished; and in Are they use block-tin, granulated ; where.

as in other places they mix their tin

‘with lead and quicksilver, which not ) only blanches worse than the former, ,

EQ

OL RE etre eeinne a 1S Nin aN wR TNS gad Sta * (Es NR Per ak,

42 The Needle-maker.

_ but is also dangerous, as any puncture

made with pins of this sort is not so readily cured.

Pins are distinguished by numbers ; the smaller are called from No. 3, 4,

_ 5, to the 14th, whence they go by rwos,

_ viz. No. 16, 18, and 20, which is the

( largest size. Besides the white pins,

' there are black ones, made for the use _ of mourning, from No. 4 to No. 10. _ There are pins with double heads of se- _ veral numbers, used by ladies to fix the buckles of their hair for the night, with. ' out the danger of pricking.

cnet

WE shall now give a short account

of the’ manufacture of needles: these make a very considerable article in - commerce, the consumption of them is almost incredible. The sizes are

from:No. 1; the largest, to No 25, the _

The Needle-maker. 43

‘smallest. Inthe manufacture of needles, the German and Hungarian steel are of the most repute.

The first thing in making needles is,

to pass the steel through a coal fire, and by means of a hammer to bring it into a cylindrical form. ‘This being done,

it is drawn through a large hole of a —

wire-drawing iron, and, returned into ‘the fire,-and drawn through a second hole of the iron smaller than the first,

and so on till it has acquired the degree :

of fineness required for that species of

needles. The steel, thus reduced to a : fine wire, is cut in pieces of the length of the needles intended. These pieces : are flatted at one end on the anvil, in order to form the head and eye. They — are then softened and pierced at each —

extreme of the flat part, on the anvil,

bya punch of well-tempered steel, ar |

laid on a leaden block to bring out, with

i :

i : j ‘4 4 4 i : i By Sa

4

e ab

aa)

eS #8 ae

a The Needle-maker.

another punch, the little piece of steel remaining in the eye. When the head and eye are finished, the point is formed with a file, and the whole filed over:

they are then laid to heat red hot ona.

long narrow iron, crooked at one end, ina charcoal fire; and when taken out thence, they are thrown into a bason of cold water to harden. ‘They are then laid in an iron shovel on a fire more or less brisk in proportion to the thickness

- of the needles, taking care to move

them from time to time. This serv

_ to temper them, and take off their bri:

_theness. They are now to be straight

\ ened oneafter another with the hammer. —

The next process is the polishing.

4 To do this they take twelve or fifteen

housand needles, and range them in

x ts t ‘Mitte heaps against each other on a piece

_ ef new buckram sprinkled with re :

The Needle-maker. + 45

_emery-dust is thrown over them, which is again sprinkled with oil of olives; at last the whole is made up into a roll, well bound at both ends. This roll is _ laid on a polishing-table, and over it a | thick plank loaded with stones, which

men work backwards and forwards for _

two days successively, by these means

the needles become insensibly polished.

They are now taken out, and the filth washed off with hot water and soap: _ they are then wiped in hot bran, a little moistened, placed with the needles in a

- ind box, suspended in the air by a _

rd, which is kept stirring till the bran

| and needles are dry. The needles are now sorted ; the points are turned the ©

same way, and smoothed with an eme- ry stone turned with a wheel ; this is the end of the process, and nothing remains to be done but to make them up in packets of 250 each.

46 1 Pee: Needle-maker.

Needles were first saades in Englands by a native of India, in 1545, but the art was lost at his death: it was, however, | shortly after recovered by Christopher Greening, who, with his three children, were settled by Mr. Damer, ancestor of the present Lord Milton, at Long Cren-

don, in Bucks, where the manufactory _

has been carried on from that time to the

present.

EHR hou OTE EA enemy e rey oe

Of fo Yj, : Le te MOLOCt .

47

THE WIRE-DRAWER.

Mera wires are frequently drawn o fine as to be wrought with other threads, of silk, wool, or hemp; and thus they become a considerable article inthe manufactures. The metals most commonly drawn into wire are gold, ‘Silver, copper, and iron. Silver wire and gold wire are the _ same, except that the latter is covered with gold. There are also counterfeit - gold and silver wires, made of “copper iv gilt and silvered over. ee The business of a wire-drawer i 1s thes performed: if it is gold wire that i ‘is wanted, an ingot of silver is double gilt, a , ac then by the assistance of a mill _ if is (sawn into wire. The mill ‘con. ‘sists of a steel plate, perfor | _ holes’ of different dimensions, and a_ “wheel which turns the spindles. - ‘The .

48 The Wire-drawer.

ingot, which at first is but small, is pass- ed through. the largest hole, and then through one a degree smaller, and so continued till it is drawn to the requir- ed fineness ; and it is all equally gilt, if drawn out as fine as a hair.

The next operation is that of the flatting-mill, which consists of two pere fectly round and exquisitely polished rollers, formed internally of iron, and welded over with a plate of refined steel ; these rollers are placed with their axes parallel and their circumferences nearly in contact, they are both turned

a with one handle; the lowermost is about

ten inches in dimacer, the upper about two, and they are something more than an inch in thickness. ‘The wire un- winding from a bobbin, and passing between the leaves of a book gently pressed, and through a narrow slit in an upright piece of wood, called a

Fhe Wire-drawe?. 49

‘Ketch, is directed by a small conical ole in a piece of iron, called a guide, to any particular part of the width of the rollers, some of which are capable ef receiving, by this contrivance, forty threads. When the wire is flatted be- tween the rollers, it is wound again on

a bobbin, which is turned by a wheel, baci on the axis of one of the rollers, and so proportioned, that the motion of the bobbin just keeps pace with that of the rollers. 7

Brass and copper wire is drawn in a similar manner to that already de- scribed. Of the brass wire there are many different sizes, suited to different kinds of works. The finest is used for the strings of musical instruments. -Pin-makers also use great quantities of wires of several sizes to make pins of. ie Iron, Lwire is made.from bars of iron,

which are first drawn out. to. a Coons Ob Ti E

50 The Wire-drawer.

length, to about the thickness of half

an inch in diameter, at a furnace with — a hammer gently moved by water. — These thinner pieces are bored round,

and put into a furnace to anneal. A.

very strong fire is necessary for. this

operation. ‘I hey are then delivered to the work-

men called rippers, who draw them into |

wire through two or three holes, and then annealed a second time; after which

_ they are to be drawn into wire of the

thickness of a pack thread: after this they are again to be annealed, and then

delivered to the small-wire-drawers. The plate, in which the holes are, is

iron on the outside and steel on the in-

side surface, and the wire is anointed with oil, to make it run the easier. The

first iron that runs from the stone, when

melting, being the softest and toughest, is usually preserved to make wire of.

¢

The Wire-drawer. Bh

It is difficult to determine the period when attempts were first made to draw into threads metal cut or beat into small slips, by forcing them through holes in asteel plate. It should appear that as long as the work was performed by the ham.

mer, the artists at Nuremberg were call- ed wire-smiths ; but after the invention of drawing iron, they were denominat- ed wire-drawers, or wire-millers. Both

these appellations occur in history so.

‘early as the year 1351; therefore the invention must have been known in the fourteenth century.

At first, threads: exceedingly massy were employed for weaving and embroi- dery: it is not at all known when the flatted metal wire began to: be spun round linen or silk thread. The spin- ning-mill, by which the labour is now performed, isa contrivance of “ea in-

genuity. |

7 RRS Ne CY NY ONE Bg Ain eis OMAN eye bateas Ss i P ihe ek cata eve Gh 4. vi dae

OS ee ee ei ee

LN, SE EEE OP Oe OTE Tp ee oe

52 The Wire-drawer.

| | a

The wire first spun about thread was round ; and the invention of previously making the wire flat is probably a new

epoch in the history of the art: and it

is a curious fact, that three times as much silk can be covered by flatted as by round wire; so that various orna-

_ mental articles are cheap in the same

proportion. Besides, the brightness of the metal is heightened in an uncom- mon degree, and the article becomes — much more beautiful. :

The greatest improvement ever made

in this art, was undoubtedly the inven-

tion of the large drawing-machine, which is driven by water, or by steam, and in which the axle-tree, by means of a lever, moves a ‘pair of pincers, that open as they fall against the drawing- plate; lay hold of the wire, which is guided through a hole of the plate; _ shut as they are drawn back; and in

a a The IVire-drawer. 53

_ that manner pull the wire alone with them.

Wire-drawing in all its branches is profitable to the master; and to the

workman it is a good business, being -

‘a trade that is not exposed to the wea-

ther, that can be carried on at all sea-

sons of the year, and by which he may

earn from one guinea todoublethat sum in a week. : we

{

Fg

SEN RR, SO aay Pg ee SE Raa ene le eee mee

Ee eS ee CPP Pe Mt te yy aay ee EO SIN PMO” (Fe Wee ae

Pe nina,

THE PAPE R-MAKER.

THE petontidiare of paper is so cu-

rious, and so well worth the attention

of young persons, that we recommend ‘them to take some pains to get a sight of

‘the whole process, which may easily be ‘done. wherever there are paper-mills.

Linen, such as our shirts are made of,

vis spun from flax that grows in the

fields; and from linen rags, that is,

from shirts and other articles of dress

when worn thread-bare, fine white pa-

per is manufactured: of course every

piece of rag, however small, should be preserved, and not thrown into the fire.

‘Eh fig t thing to be done towards the formation of paper, is to put the. rags into a machine, or cylinder, form-

- ed of wire, which is made to turn round

with great velocity to whirl out the

‘dust: they are then sorted according to

Lif"

——

Lee oy

|

substance of paper, and th mould ; for which purpose it is convey-_

_ Tbe Paper-naker. 55

their didnt qualities; after which they are put into a large cistern or trough perforated with holes, through E which a stream of clear water constant-

: fois Hows In this cistern is placed a cy-

linder about two. feet long, set thick with rows ef iron spikes. At the bot- ~ tom of the trough there are correspond-

ang rows of spikes. ‘The cylinder is made to whirl round with inconceivable

rapidity, and, with the iron teeth, rends and tears the cloth to atoms, till with the assistance of the water it is reduced toathin pulp. By the same process

all the impurities are cleared away, and

it is restored to its original white

ed to fhe vat. This vat, of which we

have a representation in the plate, is

eee Sie. cease eR ER MO I eee A, AS ne ne

4

aE ie 8 I Oe

Se RE Ce ee ee RT Oe ee Ey a Bape RS OE ;

eee

56 The Paper-maker.

oe

made of wood, generally about five feet broad, and two or three feet in depth. It is kept in a proper temperature’ by means of a charcoal fire. |

The mould, which the paper-maker has in his hand, is composed of many wires set in a frame close together, and of another moveable frame equal in

size to the sheet of paper to be mac

These wires are disposed i in the shape ~ the figure, which is discovered ina sheet of paper when we hold it up to

othe light.

The workman holds the fone in both his hands, plunges it horizontally to the tub, and takes it up quickly 5

the water runs away between the wires,

and there remains nothing on the mould but eaten pulp, in a thin coat, which forms the sheet.of paper. ipa Another person, called the coucher, - receives the mould, and places the sheet

The Paper-maker. = 57

of paper on a felt or woollen cloth, during which the workman makes an- other sheet. They proceed in this man- ner, laying alternately a sheet and a felt, till they have made six quires of paper, which are called a post’; such is the heap on the right hand of the vat. When the last sheet of the post is co- ¥ ered with the last felt, the workmen ‘employed about the vat unite, and sub- mit the whole heap to the action of the

press, which is on the paper-maker’s _

right hand. After this operation ane .

other person separates the sheets of pa-

per from the felts, laying them.in a

heap ; and several of these heaps col-

lected together are again put under the

press. They are turned and pressed

several times, and then the sheets are

hung up, three or four together, on lines.

* dry. ae, ~The paper is now to be sized, because,

SESS Ss cee

5

Re ol TTT SS! ~

58 The Paper-maker. |

in its present state it will not bear the ink. The size is made of shreds and parings, collected from the tanners, curriers, and parchment-makers ; and immediately before the operation a cer- tain quantity of alum is added to the size. The workman then takes a hand- ful of the sheets, smoothed and render- ed as supple as possible, and dips the “a into the vessel containing the size, and when he has finished ten or 2 dozen of these handfuls, they are submiited to the action of the press ; the superfluous ize is carried back to the vessel by means of a small pipe. The paper is now to be hung, sheet by sheet, on lines to dry.

When the paper is sufficiently ne it is carried to the finishing-room, where ‘itis pressed, selected, examined, folded, made up into quires, and finally into reams. It is’ here submitted twice to.

The Paper-maker. : 59

the press; first, when it is at its full size, and secondly, after it is folded.

Every quire of paper consists of. twenty-four or twenty-five sheets ; that is, the larger number refers to paper made use of in printing: and each ream contains twenty quires.

In the manufacture many sheets are damaged ; these, in the sorting-room, ‘are put together, and two of the worst quires are placed on the outsides of the. ream, called outside quires. ‘The reams are tied up in wrappers made of the set- tling of the vat, and then they are fit for sale. Some paper is made smooth and glossy like satin, by means of hot plates ; this is called hot-pressing. The process cf papermaking takes about three weeks. .

Paste-board is made in a sue way to that of paper.

Blotting-paper, and paper used foy

&

rs my ras

aie AARNE NL aa anes S| «

60 ° The Paper-maker.

filtering fluids, is paper not sized, in

which therefore the ink readily sinks _ or spreads. Brown and other coloured _. papers are made of coarse or coloured _ Fags. 4 Wove or woven paper is made in moulds, the wires of which are exceed- ingly fine, of equal thickness, and wo-

ven or laticed one within another. ‘The an) : e ay 4 _ marks therefore of these are easily press- __ ed out, so as to be scarcely visible.

metry emp PT

l

mt

Ses

Sill S-

tl

ZA

NE

SELEA

—"

ini

ll

ol

THE PRINTER.

_. Tuere are three kinds of printing : one from copper-plates, for pictures, ~which we have already described* ; another from moveable letters for Hogks, which is the subject of the present ar- ‘ticle; and the third from blocks, for

_ printing calicoes, linens, cottons, &c. This will be the Publees of an otis article.

_ Of these branches, that of aie press printing is the most curious, and the most important to the interests of mankind ; since to this art we are in- — debted for our deliverance from igno- rance and error, for the progress of learning, the revival of the sciences, and

- numberless improvements i in the arts, which would have either been lost to -mankind, or confined to the knowledge a

vine * See vol. i. p. 94. VOL. HI. Ye Gas

62 : The Printer.

of a few persons only. ‘* To the art of printing,” says Dr. Knox, “ we owe the Reformatién. If the books of Lu- ther had been multiplied only by the __ Slow process of the hand-writing, they — must have been few, and would have easily been suppressed by the combina-

_ tion of wealth and power; but poured _ forth in abundance from the press, they spread over the land with the rapidity of an inundation, which acquires addi-.

- tional force from the efforts used to ob- struct its progress. He who undertook to prevent the dispersion of books once issued from the press, attempted a task no less arduous than the destruction of | the hydra. ‘Resistance was in vain, and - religion was reformed: and we who are chiefly interested in this happy revolu- tion must remember, amidst the praises bestowed on Luther, that his endea-

The Printer. 63

- yours would have been ineffectual, un- _assisted by the invention of printing.”

_ Theart of printing, in whatever light it is viewed, claims the highest respect

and attention. From the ingenuity of

the contrivance it has ever excited me- chanical curiosity ; from its connection with learning and its influence on the human character, it is certainly the most important invention with which the world has been benefited ; and young people should endeavour to go through

a printing-office after they have read this |

| account of the art.

The workmen employed in printing are of two kinds : compositors, who range and dispose the letters into words, lines,

pases, &c. according to the copy deli-

vered to them by the author; and the - pressmen, who apply ink upon ave same, and take off the impression. In the back ground of the plate a compositor

io tt

ates

SRS ini ra me i EOE RS ee eee

Set

DF SAE Re Oe Ee Pa a ce Le) RRR tC ee Fs Spent

64 The Printer.

is represented at work, and a pressman. is engaged at his business in the front. _

_ The letters, or, as they are usually

_ called, the types, are made of a mixed

types, called the upper and the lower case. In the upper are placed, in se- parate boxes or divisions, the capitals, small capitals, accented letters, figures, and the marks of reference: in the lower are placed the small letters,

also the double- letters, the stops,

and the spaces that go between the words, and fill up short lines. A pair of cases for the Roman types and

another for the Italic are usually placed.

on each frame, and they stand sloping, in such a manner as that every part shall be within the reach of the com-

es

metal; they are disposed in cases with - separate square divisions, called boxes,

for the different letters, There are two cases for the purpose of containing the —

Bh aera blah hs la ee Soa iat Sli he Ba ae Tn

The Printer. ON eo

positor. Having the letters properly

distributed, he lays the written copy |

before him, and begins to compose. He has a small frame made of iron, called’ a composing-stick, in his left hand, in

which he places the first letter of the

' first word of the copy, then the second, and so on till the word Is finished ; 2

then puts:a blank or space between ‘that and the next word: in this manner he

proceeds till he has finished the line, when he goes on to the next; but all

the letters are reversed, that the impres-

sion may stand right on the paper.

When the composing-stick, which —

holds several lines, is full, the compo- ‘sitor empties it carefully into a frame “of wood called a galley. We then fills and empties the composing-stick as be-

fore, till a complete page be formed, ©

when he ties it up with a cord or pack- |

' thread, and, setting it by, proceeds to G2

| I

Ss

66 | The Printer.

the next, till the number of pages to be contained in a sheet is completed : this being done, he carries them to the imposing-stone, there to be ranged in order, and fastened together 1 in a frame

called a chase; this is termed imposing.

The chase 1s differently made, according

to the number of pages contained in a

sheet ; that is, according as the work is folio, quarto, octavo, &c. Lo dress the chase, is to range and fix

the pages, leaving the proper margin

between them: for this purpose the compositor makes use of a set of furni- ture consisting of slips of wood of dif- ferent dimensions; some of these are placed at the top of the pages, and call- ed head-sticks ; others at the sides, call-

ed back-sticks and gutters. The pages,

being placed at their proper distances, are secured by the chase and furniture, and fastened together by means of little

The Printer. 67

wedges of wood called quoins, driven

between the chase and the foot and side- - sticks with a wooden mallet and piece © of hard wood. In this state the work is called a form; and as there are two

forms required for every sheet, when

both sides are to be printed, it is neces-

sary that the distances between the pa-

ges in each form should be placed with

such exactness, that the impression of the pages in one form shall fall exactly on the back of the pages of the other; this is called register.

As mistakes will occur, a sheet,

which is called a proof, is printed off, and given to the corrector of the press, who examines it while a boy reads the

copy: to him, making the requisite al-

terations in the margin; which being done, he gives the proof to the compo-

sitor to be corrected. ‘This is done by

unlocking the form upon the imposing-

Py A ee

68 The Printer.

stone, loosening the quoins and taking | out the wrong or faulty letters marked in the proof, which he lays before him, with a slender sharp-pointed steel bod- kin, and putting others into their pla- ces. After this another proof is taken, and, having been again read by the cor- rector, is sent to the author; who, if he wishes it, writes on it © revise,” which signifies that another proof is to be sent to him, to see that all the mis- takes marked in the last poe are cor- rected.

Here then the compositor’s work is finished, and it is committed to the pressmen, whose business it is to work off the forms thus prepared and cor- rected ; in doing which four things are required, viz. paper, ink, balls, and a press. ‘Ilo prepare the paper for use, it is first to be wetted, by dipping seve- val sheets together in water; these are

The Printer. 69

afterwards laid in a heap over each other, and, to make them take the wa- ter equally, they are all pressed close down with a weight at the top. The ink is made of oil and lamp-black. The balls, by which the ink is applied on the — forms, are a kind of wooden funnels with handles, the cavities of which are filled with wool, and this is covered With _ undressed sheep-skin, made extremely soft and pliable. ‘The pressman takes one of these in each hand, and, having applied one of them ‘to the ink-block, works them together till the ink is equally distributed, and then he black- _ens the form which is placed on the press, by beating the face of the letter with the balls. The printing-press, represented in the plate, is a complex and very curious “machine, which will be readily under- stood by any person who is witness to

70 The Printer.

the operation. Besides the machinery for pressing, there is a carriage, con- taining a large ana polished stone, on which the form is placed : this is rolled backwards and forwards to receive the sheet, and deliver it when the i impression is made.. :

The form being laid on the stone and inked, the pressman takes a sheet of paper from the heap, and spreads it straight on a frame called a tympan, which confines two sheets of parchment. _and two folds of blanket between them; these are necessary to take the impres- gion of the letters upon the paper. To the tympan is fastened, by hinges,a thin frame of iron called a frisket, which is covered with paper, cut in the necessa- ry places, that the sheet, which is put between the tympan and the frisket, may. receive the ink without injuring the mar- gins. To regulate the margins, a sheet

SRY Co 2 OS Le TE Se Ey ae TEP RE eye

The Printer. 71

of paper is fastened on the tympan, and, ‘on each side is fixed an iron poiat, which makes holes in the sheet, and the points are placed in the same holes when the impression is to oe made on the other side.

The carriage, containing the stone, form, paper, &c. is now, by turning a handle, rolled under the screw, which, with two pulls of the handle, performs the business ; it is then rolled out again, and the paper taken off and laid on one side. The form is then again inked, and another sheet laid on as before ; and this is continued till as many meee are _ printed as the impression consists of. After one side of all the sheets is print- ed, another form, which contains the pages for the other side, is laid upon the press-stone, and printed off in ne same manner.

"2 | The Printer.

In general there are two pressmen to each press; and then one man inks: the form, and the other does the rest of the work. When the required num- ber of sheets are taken off, the formis to be separated, in order that the let- fers may be restored to their proper _ cases. The form is first washed in a.

“strong ley, by means of a stout brush, and then with fair water. It is then laid on a board by the compositor, who unlocks it, and, having loosened the lines, again washes it, to free it com- pletely from dirt. When he wants the typesto compose another sheet, he takes. out several lines at once upon a brass rule, and taking a word or two at a “time between his finger and thumb, re- places each letter into its proper divi- sion, and ‘this is called distribution.

Besides the several kinds of letters - used in printing, there are likewise

}

The Printer. i 3

rules, for black lines; borders; and head and tail-pieces. The rules for black lines are made of brass, and ex- actly of the height of the letter. Bor- ders, flowers, &c. are ornaments in the form of long bars, serving for the di- visions of books, chapters, &c. Head _ and tail-pieces are cut either in wood, pewter, brass, copper, or silver. Journeymen printers, compositors and pressmen, will easily earn from thirty shillings to two guineas a week. » The business of the pressman requires

little genius, but a considerable portion —

‘of strength. A youth designed for a “compositor ought to have been well

educated in his own language; and he will find it of great advantage in the

course of his business, if he understand

‘something of the modern and ancient

languages.

VOL. III. \ H

1h

THE SOCe Ey

Bose ome. 1S ae to be the art of sewing together the several sheets of a

book, and securing them with a back and strong paste-board sides, covered - with leather. In this business, the first’

eee ee RS

Pal folding-stick : : In this they are ‘direct. ne ede by. the catch-words and signatures,

annexed to them, at the bottom | pages of the first one or more wen €

operation is to fold the sheets according

to the proper form ; that is, folios into.

‘two leaves, quartos into four, octavos _ into eight, and so on; this is usually the work of women, ae perform it

with. a slip of i ivory, or box-wood, calle |."

which are the letters with the number

uv each sheet. oe - The leaves thus folded atte Be éver x

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a Bookbinder. To

each other in the order of the signa- tures, are beaten on a stone with a hea- vy hammer, to make them solid and smooth, and then they are pressed.

a

Thus prepared, they are sewed inasew-

iIng-press, upon packthreads or cords, which are called bands, at a proper dis- tance from each other ; which is done by drawing a thread through the mid- dle of each sheet, and giving a.turn ‘round each band, beginning with the

first, and proceeding to the last. The

common number of bands is six in fo- lios, and five in quartos and octavos. In neat binding a saw is made use of, to make places for the bands, which are sunk into the paper, so that the back

of the book, when bound, may be {

smooth, without any appearance of | bands. After this the backs are glued,

_ the ends of the bands being opened with — a knife, for the more convenient fixing —

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16 The Bookbinder.

of the paste-boards; then the back is turned with a hammer, the book being fixed in a press between boards, called backing-boards, in order to make a groove for admitting the paste-boards. The boards being then applied, holes are made for drawing the bands through, the superfluous ends being cut off, and

the parts hammered smooth. The book is then pressed, in order for cutting ; which is performed by a machine called aplough. After this the book is put into a press called the cutting-press, be- _twixt two boards, the one lying even with the press, for the knife to run up- on, the other above, for the knife to cut | against.

The book being cut, the paste- -boards are squared with a proper pair of iron shears, and it is then ready for sprink- ling, gilding, blacking, or marbling the leaves. If the leaves are to be gilt, the

The Bookbinder. ye

book is put between two boards into a

press, and when the leaves are rendered.

very smooth, they are rubbed over with

size-water ; the gold-leaf is then laid on,._

dried by a ae and burnishe off. | The head-band is now to be added ; which is an ornament of thread or ail

placed at the extremities of the book

across the leaves, and woven or twist- —

ed about a roll of paper. 7 The book is now fit for covering : s calf-skin is the most _usual cover ; this is moistened in water, and cut to the size of the book; the edges are then pared off on a marble stone. The co- ver is next smeared over with paste, then

stretched over the paste-board on the

outside, and doubled over the edges within-side, ‘The bookbinder then fixes it firmly between two boards, to make the cover stick the stronger to the paste-

boards and the back ; on the eon per-

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PEP PGRN IRE) Pk eg ER Boe enn

18 The Bookbinder.

formance of which depends the neat- - ness of the book. ‘The back isnow to _ be warmed by the fire to soften the glue, © _-and the leather of the back is rubbed down with a folding-stick or bodkin, to fix it close to the back of the book. _ After this it is washed over with a little _ paste and water ; two blank leaves on ~ each side are then to be pasted down to the cover, and, when dry, the leaves are burnished in the press, and the cover - rolled on the edges. . The cover is now _ glazed with the white of an egg, and then polished with a polishing-iron. If _ the book is to be lettered, a piece or _ pieces of red morocco are pasted be- tween’ the bands, to receive the title, &c. in gold letters.

The letters or other ornaments are made with gilding-tools, engraved in reli¢vo, either on the points of punche- ons, or around little cylinders of brass.

The Bookbinder. 79

The puncheons make their impression by being pressed flat down, and the cy- linders by being rolled along by a han- © dle, to which they are fitted on an iron gk or axis. | To apply the gold, the binders bibs

the parts of the leather with a liquor made of the whites of eggs diluted with water, by means of a bit of sponge ; and and when nearly dry, they slightly oil _them, and then lay on pieces of gold- leaf ; and on these they apply the tools, . having first warmed them in a charcoal fire. When the gilding is finished, they rub off the superfluous polls and polish

' the whole.

The business of the bookbinder, in

general, requires no great ingenuity, — nor any considerable strength of body. _ Journeymen can earn thirty shillings a- __ week ; and much more, if they are good

80 The Bookbinder.

workmen, and are intrusted with very

fine work. Formerly bookbinding was nota separate trade, but it was united

with that of the stationer; it is now, ’ however, carried on alone, and bookbin- ders are generally feel a ay through the year, a

The price of binding is ee by certain printed lists agreed on between the bookseller and the bookbinder.

In the plate, the man is represented in the act of cutting the leaves of the book; on his right, on the floor, .are — his ge-pot and paste-tub; behind him are his tools for gilding; and on his right is the press, for bringing the books into the least possible com- pass. | Ae : In London n, the business of gilding the leaves oi books is a separate em-— ployment, and it is done before the

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The Bookbinder. 81

boards of the book are covered with the leather.

2

DS Ee NR ME ne erate 8 RAMPS ERT ED 1 Pe EMAL OPE ATT one RP ASSEN REL Be st Cs Un A Nc ea Ree ERPS ne ae

THE CALLICO-PRINTER..

CaL.icois a sort of cloth resembling

_ hinen, made of cotton; it takes its name from Callicut, a city on the coast of _ Malabar. The callico-printer is em-_ _ ployed in printing this cloth. The first hint towards this branch of business was had fom the ,Indian chintzes. The ico-printing was introduced into Lon-. don i in the year 1676, and it has since been encouraged by divers acts of par-

: liament. — © In the Fast Indies, they paint all their “callicoes with the pencil, which they must do with great expedition, as the price tere} is very low; but here the.

The Callico-Printer. 83

breadth of the cloth intended to be printed ; the workman then divides the pattern into several parts according to its size, each part being about eight in- hes broad, by twelve inches long ; each distinct part of the pattern thus divided,

is cut out upon wooden blocks; the ©

cloth to be printed is extended upon a table; and the types, being covered with

the proper colours, are laid on after the.

manner represented in the plate, and the impression is left upon the cloth. The workman begins to lay on the types at one end of the piece, and so continues ‘till the whole is finished: great care must be taken that the patterns join with accuracy, and that there is no in- terstice or vacancy left.

Cutting the pattern in wood being the . ;

‘thost curious part of the Seg | we

SH 2 The Cea Printer.

shall describe that particularly. The cutters in wood begin with preparing a plank or block of the proper size: beech, pear-tree, and box are used for this purpose; but the box-tree is the most fit for the business, as being the closest, and least liable to be worm-ea- ten. As soon as the wood is cut into the proper size and made very smooth, itis fit to receive the drawing of the design. Sometimes ink is’ used, and, to prevent its running, it is rubbed over with a mixture of white-lead and wa- ter, and after it is dry it is rubbed off and polished. : On this the design is drawn; and those who cannot draw themselves, make use of designs furnished by others whose profession is to draw patterns. The drawing marks out so much of the block as is to be spared, or left stand-.

BE dais

The Callico-Printer. 85

‘ing. The rest they cut off, and take away very curiously with the point of exceedingly sharp knives, or little chis- els, or gravers, according to the bigness or delicacy of the work ; for they stand in need of no other instruments. | Block-engraving differs from that on copper, in this: that in the former the impression comes from the prominent or strokes left uncut ; whereas in the latter it comes from ragenele cut in the metal. The manner of printing with wooden prints is easy and expeditious, if there be only two colours, as green and blue; or black, and a white ground, then the block requires only to be dipped in the printing-ink, and impressed on the cloth. If more colours are used, then they are to be laid on with a brush or brushes, and the impressions to be made as before with the hand. : VOL. III. I

86 ‘The Callico-Printer.

When the whole piece is printed, the cloth is washed and bleached to take away any accidental stains it may have acquired in the operation: it is then dried, calendered, and laid a in folds fit for the shop.

Callico-printing is reckoned a very good business both for the master and his journeymen ; the master, however, requires a large capital, a situati plentifully supplied with good and clear water, and extensive grounds for bleach- ing and drying their cloths. He employs three sorts of hands : the pattern-draw- er; the cutters of the types, who are also the operators in printing ; and a number of labourers, to assist in wash- ing. ‘The pattern-drawer is paid ac- cording to the variety and value of the designs; and the printer, who is able. also to cut with ability and taste, can,’

The Cailo:PRiier. 87

in the summer months, earn four or - five guineas a week, or more.

A youth designed for this business ought to have a genius for drawing, a good eye, and a delicate hand. The bu- siness is not laborious, and the chief care is in the choice of a master who _ will do justice to his apprentice. Most _ callico-printers have some particular se- crets in the preparation of their colours, “gs _ which they ought to be bound to reveal — to those whom they undertake to teach | the art ; since on the knowledge of this Pegends principally the success of the lad. |

What are called wood. engravings are done after this manner, and so are. paper-hangings, and playing-cards. But ‘ card-making 1 Is purely a mechanical bu- siness, and requires neither judgment,

_ strength, nor ingenuity. |

88

THE TIN-PLATE WORKER.

. . Towerare, or. ins. as it is sisal -eallled, is a composition of iron and_ . block-tin, not melted together, but the on, in bars, is: cased over with tin, and then flatted or drawn out by: means ei bf mills. _ + In the year 1681. sinaplates were rides in England by Andrew Yarran-— _ ton, who was sent into Bohemia to learn - the art. The manufacture did not seem to. answer, and was even reckoned | a among the projects called bubbles in 1720: ina very few years it was. again revived; and in the year 1740 it was Browse: to such perfection, that very | small quantities have since that time _

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The Tin-plate Worker. 89

been imported. Our plates are of a

finer gloss, or coat, than those made

beyond sea, the latter being chiefly hammered, but ours are always drawn out by the rolling-mill.

The tin-plate worker receives it in sheets, and it is his business to form them in all the various articles that are represented in the plate, such as ket- tles, saucepans, canisters of all sorts and sizes, milk-pails, lanthorns, &c.

The instruments that he makes use of are, a large pair of shears to cut the tin into the proper size and shape, a polished anvil, and hammers of various ‘kinds. The joints of his work he makes

with solder. which is a composition of

what is called block-tin and lead ; this he causes to unite with the tin, by means of rosin.

The business of a tin-plate aces iS’

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90 The Tin-plate Worker.

very profitable to the master ; and the journeymen, if sober and industrious, can with ease earn from thirty-five shil. lings to two guineas a week. The principal manufacturers in London are Jones and Taylor’s in Tottenham-court- road, and Howards’ in Old-street.. _ These seldom employ less than. one — _ hundred, or a hundred and fifty men each. Those who manufacture tin- ware on a smaller scale may be found, ‘in every part of the metropolis; and | one of the chief sources of profit which, - _ these smaller tradesmen enjoy, is that of lamp-lighting. ag, This business does not require great | strength; but if a man would carry it ” on upon a large scale, it requires a ve- ry considerable capital: journeymen’s, wages may amount to between two and. and three hundred pounds per week. In.

Tbe Tin-plate Worker. =» 91

fact, the tin-plate worker pays his men twice a week; for on the Wednesday night.a bell is rung, which announces to each workman, that the master or his chief clerk is ready in the counting- house, to lend money to those who cannot wait till Saturday night for their wages.

The large houses have constantly travellers in various parts of the king- dom; and, as they cannot carry the articles of their trade in saddle-bags, they have drawings of all works of taste, such as: moulds for jellies, puddings,

Tin-in blocks resembles silver, but is darker.. It is softer, less elastic and sonorous, than any other metal, except lead. It is easily. extended into leaves, and melts. more readily than all the me- tals. A» composition of eight parts of

92 The Tin-plate Worker.

bismuth, five of lead, and three of tin, will melt in boiling water. When tin is made pretty hot it will break with a _ blow. In the ore, tin is mixed with arsenic. : ,

Tin, being less liable to rust than iron, _ copper, or lead, is advantageously used for the inside covering of metallic ves- sels. An amalgam of tin and mercury is used to cover the back surface of looking-glasses. :

The chief tin-mines in the known world are those in Cornwall. It is a - fact well ascertained, that the Pheni- — cians visited these islands for the pur- pose of getting tin, some centuries be- fore the Christian zra. In the time of king John, the Cornwall mines produced - but little, the right of working them — being at that period wholly in the King, as Earl of Cornwall. Their value has.

The Tin-plate Worker. 98

fluctuated at different periods: about a century ago they did not yield above thirty or forty thousand pounds per an- num; but of late years they have pro- duced five times that sum. The Prince — of Wales, as Duke of Cornwall, re- | ceives four shillings upon every hundred | weight of what is called coined white tin: ‘this amounts to about ten thousand i, "pounds per annum. The proprietors | of the soil have one-sixth, and the rest goes to the adventurers in the mine, _who are at the whole charge of work. © | ing. | ) . The tin being to be dined among the lords and adventurers, is Sane and worked at the mill, and is then | carried, under the name of block-tin, to the melting-house, where it is melt- ed and poured into blocks or bars, and carried to the coinage town.

oe The Tin-plate Worker.

The coinage towns are Leskard, Lest- withiel, Truro, Helston, and Penzance, | ‘ being the most convenient parts of the

county for the tinners to bring their _ tin to every quarter of a year.

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copper, particularly in. large countr

find, that the same people deal in brass, | copper, arid tin ware; and not unfre- — quently, the furnishing i ironmonger sells _

THE BRAZIER.

"Teste artiGicer makes Latics, pails, candlesticks, and other kite¢hen uten- sils in brass. In the shops we often

almost every article made 1 in brass and

towns. In such cases the -brazier n ther makes, nor is supposed to make, all the different articles in his shop; it.

is sufficient for his own purpose, as well

as for the advantage of his custom ‘ that he should be so much of ‘a: work- :

_ ing brazier, as to be a competent judge :

of the workmanship. ad alle the oe | ‘

96 The Brazier.

in which he deals. If heis a master‘in a large way, he employs a great num- ber of hands in the different branches

of his trade, and his profits are, of course, in proportion to the magnitude of his capital. |

Some of the articles manufactured

a by the working brazier are beat out _ with the hammer, and united in their Pe eycral parts by solder ; others are cast:

those which are cast balouk to the bu-

_ siness of the founder, except the polish- _ ing and finishing, which require the art. ae af. the brazier.

The working brazier has need of

_ strength, and, if he would excel in his | profession, i should possess ingenuity ly to finish his work with taste.

The Founder is employed in casting 2 | thousand different articles in brass ; for which purpose he has models af the”

The Brazier. 97

work designed: to these he fits. the mould in which he casts his metal. He rarely designs any thing himself, and his chief skill lies in melting the brass, and running it into the mould evenly.

There are various kinds of founders; _

some who cast for braziers only, others —

who cast the different smaller articles _

for coachmakers, saddlers, &c.; andsome cast the brass cannon, to carry on the dreadful art of war. The Founder requires a strong con- — _ stitution to undergo the heat of immense

furnaces: he may earn thirty shillings

per week; but it frequently happens that he oad: a large pore of it in (perter. )

_ Brass is not a simple metal, but com- pounded of copper and zinc in certain proportions : : if the proportion of cop- per is greater, the compound is he: VOL. 11. K

98 Lhe Brazier.

beck. Copper alloyed with tin makes bronze, bell-metal, &c.

Copper is dug out of the earth, or found united with many springs con- taining a portion of sulphuric acid. _ The richest copper mines in the known world are in the Isle of Anglesea. The . mountain from which the ore is dug is called Parys; and from it have been dug thirty thousand tons in a year. There are two springs at Herngrundt, _ in Upper Hungary, so richly impreg- nated with copper and vitriolic acid,

that iron thrown into them is dissolyed

.by the acid, and the copper falls to the

bottom in its metallic form. Near these springs, pits are dug, and filled with the water: old iron is then thrown into them, which, in about a fortnight or three weeks, is taken out, and the cop- per scraped off. By this process a hun-

Sie MRE ALG he lok

Tbe Brazier. 99

dred pounds of iron will produce from eighty to ninety pounds of copper. ‘The same method is adopted at some springs in the county of Wicklow, in Ireland, and here twenty pounds of iron will yield. sixteen of copper; which fetches a high price. | The Coppersmith makes coppers, boilers, and all manner of large vessels for brewers, distillers, and others. His _ work is very laborious, and the business ‘is the most noisy of all mechanical em- _ ployments. The wages of the journey- — men are equal to the powers of body required in the operations. - Copper is used in a variety of the arts: but vessels made of it for culina. ry purposes are highly prejudicial ; for acid and fatty substances, when left in them any time, combine with the cop- per, and form verdigrease, which is an

100 The Brazier.

absolute poison, ve when end in the | smallest quantities it is very prejudicial. To prevent these pernicious effects, most copper vessels are well tinned on their insides. This operation is thus ef- ~ fected : The surface is well cleaned, by rubbing it with sal-ammoniac, or aa ' acid; the tin, or a composition of tin and lead, is then melted in the vessel and rubbed well about it ile old. rags, doubled up. The plate which accompanies this article represents a brazier working at his anvil: he has need of a forge as well as the smith, and, like him, his shop must be furnished with a strong bench, vices, hammers, pincers, and files of va- rious kinds. . :

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101.

@ THE BUTTON-MAKER.

aM ac ¥

Tere are several kinds of buttons; —

Te Tae a

‘some made of gold and silver lace, others of mohair, silk, &c., and others —

of metal. The plate represents a man

‘who makes or’ stamps metal buttons —

only. The process is very simple, after the metal comes out of the foun-_ der’shands. - ;

The pieces of metal are either cast or |

cut to the proper size, and then sent to

the button-maker, who has dies‘ or —

stamps according to the pattern wanted. _

ed is well exhibited in the plate. The

a pean stands in a place lower than the |

K 2.

4 ‘The machine by which they are stamp-

102. The Button-M. aker.

floor, by which he is nearer on a level with the place on which his dies stand :

‘by means of a single pulley he raises a

weight to the lower part of which is fixed another die; he lets the weight fall down on the metal, and the thing

is done. After this operation they are.

to be shanked; which is performed by means of siden -they are then polish- ed by women. At Birmingham this manufacture is carried on upon a very q large scale. The late John Taylor, Esq.

was the inventor of gilt buttons; and. in his house buttons have been manu-

_ factured to the amount of 800. per

week. Besides those est in 2 mould, there

are great quantities of buttons made of thin plates. The plates are brought _ to a proper degree of thickness by the

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| rolling-mill : they are then cut into

The Button-Maker. 103

yound pieces of the size wanted. Each > piece of metal thus cut, is reduced to the form of a button by beating it in- several spherical cavities, beginning with the flattest cavity, and proceeding to the more spherical, till the plate has _ got all the relievo required; and, the” ‘more readily to manage so thin a plate, ten or a dozen of them are formed to the cavities at once. As soon as the inside is formed, an impression is given to the outside, by working it with an iron puncheon, in a kind of mould like minters’ coins, engraven indentedly, and fastened to a block or bench. The cavity of the mould in which the im. pression is to be made, is of a diame. -ter and depth suitable to the sort of button to be struck in it; each kind re. quiring a particular mould. 7 The plate thus prepared makes the

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~ made after the same manner, but flat-

The Button Maker ye upper part or shell oe the boar The lower part is formed of another plate,

‘ter, and without any impression, To this is soldered a. little eye, made of wire, for the button to be fastened by. The two plates are soldered together with a wooden mould, covered with wax or rosin between, to render’ the button solid and firm; for the wax or other cement entering all the cavities formed by the redievo of the other side, sustains it, prevents its flattening, and preserves its design. | - The art of button-making in its vae rious branches is eevee and pro- tected by divers acts of parliament. Tt is unlawful to import foreign buttons. And buttons made of, or covered with; cloth, cannot be worn, without subject- ing the wearer to very severe penalties, if any person choose to sue for the same,

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105

THE CABINET-MAKER.

s an #

Tue cabinet-maker is but a superior -

kind of carpenter; he works neater, is employed on better materials, and his gains, whether considered as a master or journeyman, are probably much _ greater than those of a common car- penter.

All the arts of life ie no ‘dou ae

been the result of a gradual and pro- .

ae

gressive improvement in civilization. In ‘nothing i is this exhibited more than i in

-an upholsterer’s warehouse. | What fae

_ difference is there between the necessa-_ |

ry articles of furniture to be found ina cottage, and the elegantly furnished

106 The Cabinet-Maker.

house of a merchant or a peer! In the former there is nothing but what is

plain, useful, and almost essential to

the convenience of life: in the latter, immense sums are sacrificed to magni-

-ficence and show. The cottager is con- -

tented with a deal table, an oaken chair, and a beechen bedstead, with other ar- ticles equally plain and unexpensive. The wealthy possess sumptuous beds, inlaid tables, silk or damask chairs and

curtains, sofas, and carpets of great

value; large looking-glasses, and bril- liant lustres ; together with a variety of - carved work and gilding. ‘The furni-. ture of a cottage, or of a small farm- house, will cost but a few guineas ; that of a single room in the wealthy parts. of the metropolis, will be valued at

from five hundred toa thousand pounds.

The cabinet-maker furnishes chairs,

The Cabinet-Maker. 107

tables, chests of drawers, desks, scru-

toires, bureaus, and book-cases of all sorts and prices. But in almost all pla- ces the business of the cabinet-maker is united to that of the upholsterer ; and the furniture collected in one of their

warehouses is worth from ten to thirty

thousand pounds. Such warehouses may be seen in St. Paul’s Church-yard, Bond-street, and other parts of London.

‘The cabinet-maker represented in the

plate, is one that makes chairs, tables, looking-glass frames, book-cases, &c.

His chief tools are, saws, ‘axes, planes,

chisels, files, gimlets, turn n-screws, ham-

mers, and other tools, which are used in common: by the carpenter and the

_cabinet-maker: but those adapted to

the latter are much finer than the tools © required by the house-carpenter. The

workman represented in the plate is in

4 as nee

108 The Cabinet-Maker.

the act of making a looking-glass frame; he is putting some glue on one of the side-pieces, in order to fix it in the hole that 1s prepared to receive it. The wood principally used by cabinet-makers is mahogany, which’ has been described — under the article Carpenter.

Glue, which is of great use to the | cabinet-maker, is made of the skins of : animals, as oxen, sheep, &c.,.and the ~ older the animal is the better is the glue. Whole skins are rarely used for this ’ purpose, but only the shavings and par-

‘ings made by curriers, fell-mongers, -&c. These are boiled to the consist-. ence of jelly,and poured into flat moulds to cool; it is then cut into square pie- ces, and hung up to dry.

The goodness and the value of fur- niture depend on the fineness of the

wood, and other materials of which it

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The Cabinet-Maker. 109

is made, and on the neatness of the workmanship, A young man brought up to this business should possess a good share of ingenuity, and talents for draw- ing and designing ; because much de- pends on fashion, and in pleasing the various tastes of the public.

VOL. Ili. i.

THE SADDLER.

In early ages, when the horse was trained to the use of man, the rider sat on the bare back of the animal ; but in the course of timea covering was used, which consisted of a dressed or un- dressed skin of some beast slaughtered for food. Such coverings became af- * terwards very costly; they were deco- _ rated with many ornaments, and made large enough to hang down nearly to the eround.

Six lions’ hides with thones together fast His upper parts defended to his. waist ; And where man ended, the continued vest (Spread on his back the aoe and trappings of a_ beast. ur DrypEn.

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But it was reckoned, among the Ro- mans, more manly to ride on the bare back than u upon coverings; and Xeno- © phon, in his Cyropeedia, Riche the Persians for placing more clothes on the backs of their horses than on their beds; and gi ving themselves more trou-. ble to sit easily than to ride skilfully. Saddles, as they are now made, are seats adapted to a horse’s back, for the. convenience of the rider. They con- sist of a wooden frame called the sad- dle-tree, on which is laid a quantity of horse-hair, wool, &c.; and this is co- vered over with tanned leather, neatly: nailed to the wooden tree. ‘To keep the saddle steady on the horse, the crupper is used, which passes under the ‘creature’s tail; and girths, to prevent it from turning round. To support the | legs of the rider a pair of stirrups is

112 ea: Saddivn

also added, one of which is very useful in assisting to mount the animal: and to prevent the saddle from galling the horse’s back, a saddle-cloth is common- ly used. The articles made use of in the manufacture of these things, are more or less costly, according to the price that the purchaser pays for his goods. ; ,

Cutting-knives, hammers, and pin- cers, are the chief implements of the’ trade; that is, of the person employed in the manufacture of saddles. To. complete a single article in the business, . the aid of many different artisans Is re- quired.

The tree-maker furnishes only the wooden part of the saddle: this is, however, a very important branch of | the business ; because upon the saddle. tree the fitting of the saddle depends ;

The Saddler. 113

and in cases when gentlemen wish to~ have their saddles fit properly, it is as necessary to measure the horse’s back, as for the shoemaker to measure his customers for boots or shoes. The saddle-tree maker requires no great strength nor ingenuity.

_ The saddler’s ironmonger furnishes him with the iron or steel stirrups, buckles of all kinds, bits for bridles, and other steel or brass furniture re- quired for the harness of a horse, either for riding or drawing in a carriage. Many of these articles are originally made by the iron-founder.

There is also a distinct trade called a horse’s milliner, who makes roses for bridles, and other articles used in highly ornamented caparisons. ‘This trades- man should have an inventive genius, and a considerable share of taste to set

L 2

11l¢ The Saddler.

off the furniture belonging to a horse; and decorate it in a neat and elegant style.

The journeymen, in almost every branch of the saddlery business, work by the piece, and may earn a good liv- ing: they none of them require great strength ; the men always work in the dry, and in most of the branches clean- liness, which is no small requisite in the mechanical arts, is a principal charac- teristic. |

The saddler makes all sorts of bri- dles, coach and chaise harness: of course, besides the trades already no- ticed as peculiarly belonging to his bu- siness, he employs the tanner or lea- ther-cutter; the currier ; the embroi- derer, who works devices, crests, and coats of arms in gold, silver, or wors- teds. He buys broad-cloths and other

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The Saddler. ~ 115

woollens of the draper, . velvet and silk of the mercer, ribbons of the weaver, gold and silver and livery lace from the laceman; buckram, thread, &c. from the haberdasher. Of all these articles he should, for the sake of his custo- mers, be a good judge. The master requires a considerable capital, if he is in a large way, and called upon to give much credit.

A great number of saddles are ex- ported into foreign parts, particularly to the East Indies, as English-made sad- dles are in great repute there.

There are many different kinds of saddles, as the hunting-saddle, the racing-saddle, ladies’ saddles, &c. &c.

Saddles are of considerable antiqui- quity: at Berne, about a century ago, a saddle used to be shown as the same on which Julius Cesar rode; and in

116 The Glass-Blower.

the fourth century, the emperor Theo- dosius forbad the use of saddles weigh- ing more than sixty pounds,

‘THE GLASS-BLOWER.

Tuere is scarcely any manufacture

of more real utility than that of glass. It is formed of sand and. salt mixed in proper proportions, and melted in a. furnace. Sea-sand is generally used — for the purpose, and the salt is an al- \ kali procured from the burning of Sea- weeds. The furnace is round, and has seve- _ ral apertures, in one of which the fuel _ is introduced; the others serve to lade. - outethe Bilt metal.

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When the ingredients of which glass is composed are perfectly fused, and have acquired the necessary degree of heat, part of the melted matter is taken out at the end of a hollow tube, about two feet and a half long, which is dip- ped into it, and turned about, till a sufficient quantity is taken up; the workman then rolls it gently upon a piece of iron, to unite it more intimate- ly. He then, as it is represented in the plate, blows through the tube, till the melted mass at the extremity swell ito a bubble; after which he again rolls it

on a smooth surface, to polish it, and.

repeats the blowing, till the glass is brought as near the size and form of the vessel required as he thinks neces- sary.

There are three principal kinds of . glasses, distinguished by the form or

The Glass-Blower. . 117

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ys 118 The Glass-Blower.

manner of working them, viz. round glass, as bottles, drinking-glasses, &c. 3 table, or window-glass,—of this also there are several kinds ; and plate-glass.

If a bottle be to be formed, the melted glass at the end of the tube is put into a mould of the exact size and shape of its body, and the neck is formed on the outside, by irae out the ductile glass.

If it be a vessel with a wide orifice, the glass, in its melted state, is opened and widened with an iron tool; after which, being again heated, it is whirled about with a circular motion, till it is extended to the size required. If a handle, foot, or any thing else of the kind be required, these are made sepa- rately, and stuck on in the melted state.

Window-glass is formed in a similar manner, except that the liquid mass at

' The Glass-Blower. 119

the end of the tube is blown into-a cy- lindrical shape, which, being cut longi- tudinally by a pair of scissars or sheers, is gradually bent until it becomes a flat plate. The best window-glass was, till within these few years, made at Rad- cliffe; but this manufactory is now abandoned, and the crown-glass is brought . Newcastle, as well as the green glass,

Plate-glass, for looking- glasses, is made by suffering the mass in a state of complete fusion to flow upon a table with iron ledges to confine the melted matter, and, as it cools, a metallic roller is passed over it, to reduce it toan uni- form thickness. |

Glass is sometimes coloured, by mix- ing with it, while in a fluid state, vari- ous metallic oxydes. It is coloured _ blue by the oxyde of cobalt; red, by

120 The Glass-Blower.

the oxyde of gold; green, by the ox-. yde of copper or iron; yellow, by the oxyde of silver or antimony ; and vio- let, by the oxyde of manganese. Though glass, when cold, is brittle, it is one of the most ductile bodies known. When liquid, if a thread of melted glass be drawn out and fastened toa reel, the whole of the glass may be spun off ; and by cutting the threads of a certain length, there is obtained a sort of feather of glass. A thread of glass may be drawn or spun so fine as to be scarcely visible to the naked eye. Glass is very elastic and sonorous. oe oric acid dissolves it, and the alkalis ac upon it. Glass utensils require to He gradual- ly cooled in an oven: this operation, called annealing, is necessary to pre- vent them from breaking, by change of temperature, wiping, &c.

ie Glass-Blower. rau

‘The glazier buys the glass which he uses, at the glass-house, in crates, which contain twelve, fifteen, or eighteen ta- bles each, according to the goodness of the glass: these he cuts to pieces or panes, with a diamond fixed in a fer- rule. There aretwo kinds of windows, 2 namely, those in which the glass is fas. tened in wood, and those in which it is fixed in lead: the glazier makes use of putty, a composition of linseed-oil and whiting, for the former: for the latter the lead is first cast into thin pieces fifteen inches long, and about a quarter of an inch thick ; and then these are passed through a vice, which draws them out to the length of about four feet. ‘The glass is fixed in grooves made in the lead, and the lead solder- ed together with a composition made of lead and block-tin.

PVOL. In. | M

122 The ‘Glass-Blower.

-Plate.glass comes from the manu- factory in a very rough state; it is scarcely transparent. It is then ground with sand and polished with emery, which is a mineral substance, and puwi- ty formed of lead and tin calcined to- gether. This last substance is the prin- cipal thing used in forming white ena- mels, and glazings for earthen-ware.

When the glass plate is polished, it is to be silvered for a reflecting or look. ing-olass, which is done in the follow- ing manner: A large and very eyen board is prepared; on this is spread ve- ry evenly some tin-foil, and on the tin- foil is spread quicksilver; the glass is then laid on the quicksilver, and anum- ber of leaden weights, covered with baize, are laid upon the glass: in this "state if remains several days, till the tin and quicksilver cae firmly to the

glass.

The Glass-Blower. 123

Glass-makers can only work in the - cold months, owing to the great heats

of their furnaces: their wages are large _ in proportion to the disadvantages at- tending their labours. :

-Glaziers, in London, make a consi- derable proportion of their profits by window-cleaning : the journeymen earn about four shillings a day. _ Glass-grinders and polishers work by the piece, and may get a good living, considering that little more ingenuity is required than that which is necessary for common. labourers,

THE CORK-CUTTER. |

Corx is the bark of a tree of the same name. Ht is a species of oak. It grows thirty or forty feet high, having a thick, rough, and fungous bark’: its leaves are green above and white un- derneath, and its fruit is an acorn, — which is produced in‘great abundance. The bark of this tree is taken Of by making an incision from the top to the A oe and likewise one at each ex- tremity round the tree, and perpendi-. cular to the’first. The old bark being thus detached, the tree still lives, and in six or seven years a succeeding bark is again fit for use, 3 :

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_ The bark when stripped from the tree is piled up in a pit or pond, and loaded with heavy stones to flatten it ; it is then taken to be dried, when it is fit for sale. The tree ig not in the smallest degree injured by the opera-

tion of peeling off the bark; for if it be not performed, it splits and peels off —

of itself, being pushed up by another bark from underneath. ‘The cork-tree

is found in great abundance in France, —

Spain, and Italy:—from these coun- tries we receive the bark.

The cork-cutter’s business requires but little ingenuity ; the knives used in

The Cork-Cutter., 125

the operation have a peculiar construc- —

tion, and they must be exceedingly

sharp. The knife is almost the only in- —

-strument wanted in the trade. “The

pence) demand for corks is for the — Eparpose of stopping bottles ; these are —

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126 The Cork-Cutter.

cut by men 1 and women, who receive a certain price per gross for their labour. _ Cork-cutters sell also corks by the gross. It is one of the blackest and dirtiest of

all the trades, and not very profitable —

either for the master or the journey- men.

ple in learning the art of swimming;

such are those represented in the plate,

‘as hanging from the ceiling.

Cork is likewise used by young peo- | :

The cork waistcoat is composed of _

four pieces of cork;. two. for the ‘breasts, and two for: the back, each _ nearly as long as the waistcoat without

_ flaps. The corkis covered, and adapt-

ed to fit the body. It is open before, - and may be fastened either with strings, or buckles and straps. The waistcoat

_ weighs about twelve ounces, and may ~

_be made at the expense of a. few shil-

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The Cork-Cutter. 127

lings. ‘This article of dress would Be very useful to all persons who travel

_ much by water, or who are in the habit.

of bathing in the open seay Cork is” also used for the inner soles of shoes.

In Spain, cork is burnt to make that light kind of black called Spanish |

: black, which is very much used by iy.

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painters. ‘The Egyptians make their

Se of cork; and these, when lined

ewith a certain . resinous composition, :

preserve the dead a great length of time. In Spain they even line the walls of

‘their houses with cork, which not only _ renders the apartments warm, but cor- rects the moisture of the air.

Cork, when burnt and reduced to powder, 1s often taken internally as an

astringent ; and it has been said, that —

cups made of cork are useful for hec-

tic persons to drink their common be-

verage from. ‘

128 The Cork-Cutter. , | ‘

"Fossil-cork is the name given to a kind of stone, which is the lightest of

all stones; it is fusible in the fire, and forms a blaék a

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129

THE WATCHMAKER.

Tus business has hot been known : ‘in England more than a century and a half; but now the best watches in the y brld are made in London, and an im- “mense exportation trade in this article is carried on here. — eigen When watches were fitsi made, the whole business was performed by one man, who was then properly called a watch-maker; but the name is now given to him who puts the various movements together, adjusts their se- _veral parts, and fag the whole m mia- chine. ; .

Jt is only about a century 2g0 when

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watches went upon cat-gut instead of chain; but cat-gut was materially af- fected by every change in the atmos- phere, and of course the watch could not measure accurate time for two days -» together: but since the invention of the chain, and the great improvement in the temper of the springs, our -watches are but little affected by the weather im this climate. ay Watches and clocks, being adapted

to the same purpose, are are or fin- ished by the same artizan. The jor- mer are such movements as shew the parts of time; the /atier are such as a publish st, by striking on a bell. But the ~ name of watches is usually appropriat- ed to such asare carried in the pocket; and that of clocks to the larger move- ments, whether they strike the hour or not, Watches that strike the hour are called repeating-watches.

The Watch-Maker, 7 131,

Watches and clocks are composed of wheels and pinions; in the former there is a balance or regulator to direct the quickness and slowness of the wheels, and a spring which communi- _ cates motion to the whole machine: but in clocks, instead of the regplator and cr there are a pendulum and two

veights. The spring of a watch isin- sed in a barrel, on the outside of which is wound a chain: one end of this chain is fixed to the barrel itself, and the other to the fusee, which is a piece of metal in the form of a ot

When a watch is wound up, t chain which was upon the barrel a _ upon the fusee, and by this means the spring in the barrel is stretched; for the interior end of the spring is es 9 an immoveable axis, about. which the barrel revolves, The spring B) being

132 The Watch-Maker.

# made of exceedingly elastic steel, en-— deavours to recovery its former position, which forces the barrel to turn round ;

this motion obliges the chain which is upon the fusee to unfold, and turn the fusee. The motion of the fusee is com- municated to a wheel, which, by means of its teeth connected with the pinion, turns another wheel, and so of the rest. :

The parts of a watch are made by

several different mechanics. The move- ment-maker forges the wheels in solid metal to the exact dimensions; from him they go to the person who cuts the teeth. This part of the operation was formerly done by hand; and perhaps’ one of the greatest improvements that watches and clocks ever received, was _the invention of engines for cutting the teeth, This has reduced the expense

The Watch-Maker. 133

of workmanship and time to a mere trifle, in comparison of what it was be- fore, and has besides brought the work _ to a degree of exactness which no hand can imitate,

The wheels come back from the cut- ter to the movement-maker, who fin- ishes them, and turns the corners of _the teeth. The steel pinions are drawn ata mill, so that the watch-maker has only to file down the pivots, and fix them to the proper wheels.

The watch-springs form a trade of themselves ; they are prepared by form- ing a very thin plate of steel into a double ring, bending i It round with wire, and putting it im a proper furnace, to give it a suitable degree of heat. It is then dropped into oil or melted fat, which gives it a hardness equal to that of glass; it then undergoes several PeVOLS IIt, | N

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134 Tbe Watch-M. aker.

other operations to bring it to that fine colour and polish which it possesses, The chains are made principally by women, who cut them at a certain and a small price per dozen. It requires

fo great ingenuity to learn the art of |

making watch-chains ; the instruments made use of render the work easy, which at first sight appears very difi- cult.

There are workmen also who make nothing else than the caps and studs for watches; and others who make the cases, and others who cut and enamel the dial-plates. A particular set of tradesmen are called watch-tool makers, because their whole business consists in : forming implements used by watch and

clock-makers,

When the watch-maker has got home é all the movements of the watch, and

The Watch- M aker. 135

‘the other different parts of which it consists, he gives them to a finisher, who puts the whole together, and ad- justs it to proper time.

All the branches of this fore require a considerable share of inge- nuity, and a light hand to touch those delicate instruments which are requisite _ in their trade. The watch-finisher not only wants a strong sight, but is obliged - to make use of magnifying glasses, the frames of which are adapted totheshape © of the socket of the eye. Few trades, if any, require a quicker eye or a steadier — hand.

The trade in watches is very consi- derable; of course it employs a great autehet. of hands, and the profits of master and men are considerable. Al man to be a scientific watch-maker, should understand the principles of

136 The Watch-Maker.

nieclianics, and something of mathe-— matics; a lad, therefore, intended for this business, should have a mechanical genius and a good education. Clock-making differs chiefly from watchemaking only in the size of the works; so that a person who is con- versant in the latter is pea fitted for the former. | There are many tradesmen in Lon- don, chiefly foreigners, who make a good living by the manufacture of - wooden clocks ; here every wheel, as well as the sides, is made of wood, and, - excepting some wire and the striking- bell, there is nothing but wood that goes into the construction of those machines, _ which are sold as low as five shillings each; avery good one may be had for . ten or twelve shillings. ‘To these are

The Watch-Maker. 137

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often attached alarums ;' they then be- come useful for servants, to awaken them in the morning.

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